Ethiopian Culture

Ethiopian Culture

Ethiopia has a diverse mix of ethnic and linguistic backgrounds. It is a country with more than 80 different ethnic groups each with its own language, culture, custom and tradition. One of the most significant areas of Ethiopian culture is its literature, which is represented predominantly by translations from ancient Greek and Hebrew religious texts into the ancient language Ge'ez, modern Amharic and Tigrigna languages.

Ge'ez is one of the most ancient languages in the world and is still used today by the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church. The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church has its own unique customs and traditions, which have been influenced by Judaism.

The Tigrayans' history and culture is derived from the Aksumite Kingdom tradition and culture whereas the history and culture of the Amhara people is derived from the post Aksumite imperial reign of Menelik II and Haile Selassie.

Gender

In Ethiopia, men and women have clearly defined roles. Traditionally men are responsible for providing for the family and for dealing with family contact outside the home whereas women are responsible for domestic work and looking after the children.

Parents are stricter with their daughters than their sons; often parents give more freedom to males than females. The traditional view was men neither cook nor do shopping because housework tends to be women's job. This view continues to be held in many areas of the country.

Although many people continue to follow these traditional roles, life is constantly evolving including the role of men and women. This can be seen particularly true in urban areas where women are beginning to take a major role in all areas of employment and men are beginning to take a greater role in domestic life.

Costume

The Ethiopian traditional costume is made of woven cotton. Ethiopian men and women wear this traditional costume called gabbi or Netella. Women often wear dresses (Kemis) and netella with borders of colored embroidered woven crosses, but other designs are also used.

Other ethnic groups and tribes in the south and west of the country wear different costumes that reflect their own traditions. Some tribes partially cover their body with leather but others do not wear any clothes at all, merely decorating their faces and bodies with distinctive images.

Food

The Ethiopian national dish is called wat. It is a hot spicy stew accompanied by injera (traditional large spongy pancake made of teff flour and water). Teff is unique to the country and is grown on the Ethiopian highlands. There are many varieties of wat, e.g. chicken, beef, lamb, vegetables, lentils, and ground split peas stewed with hot spice called berbere.

Berbere is made of dried red hot pepper, herbs, spices, dried onions, dried garlic and salt ingredients. Wat is served by placing it on top of the injera which is served in a mesob (large basket tray). The food is eaten with fingers by tearing off a piece of injera and dipping it in the wat.

Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Christians do not eat meat and dairy products (i.e. egg, butter, milk, and cheese) on Wednesdays and Fridays except the 50 days between Easter and Pentecost, the Fast of the Prophets, the fast of Nineveh, Lent, the Fast of the Apostles and the fast of the Holy Virgin Mary. According to the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church belief, the faithful must abstain from eating meat and dairy products to attain forgiveness of sins committed during the year, and undergo a rigorous schedule of prayers and atonement.

Vegetarian meals such as lentils, ground split peas, grains, fruit, and varieties of vegetable stew accompanied by injera and/or bread are only eaten during fasting days. Meat and dairy products are only eaten on feasting days i.e. Christmas, Epiphany, Easter and at all other times. Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Christians, Jews and Muslims do not eat pork as it forbidden by their religious beliefs.

Drink

The favorite drink of many Ethiopians is bunna (coffee). Bunna is drunk in Ethiopia in a unique and traditional way known as a "coffee ceremony". First the coffee is roasted, then ground and placed in a Jebena (coffee pot) with boiling water. When ready it is then served to people in little cups, up to three times per ceremony.

Other locally produced beverages are tella and tej, which are served and drunk on major religious festivals, Saints Days and weddings. Tella and tej are also sold by numerous designated commercial houses all over the country.

Harar

Harar

Harar was established by Sultan Abu Beker Mohammed in 1520. Harar, the Holy City of Ethiopia's Muslim community, is believed to be the forth-holiest city after Mecca, Medina and Jerusalem. The old City Wall of Harar is the main attraction and symbol of Islamic architecture. Harar has approximately 90 mosques, which form the largest concentration of mosques in the world. One of Harar's main attractions is the hyena man who feeds hyenas on the outskirts of the town every night.

Harar is known for its turmoil and bloodshed. Ahmed Gragn killed Abu Beker Mohammed who was the ruler of Harar. Ahmed Gragn was a militant Muslim leader and used Harar as his base to launch his jihad and raids against the Ethiopian Christian Empire in 1528. He destroyed many churches and threatened the complete destruction of Ethiopian Christendom.

He was killed by Emperor Gelawdewos in a Battle near Lake Tana in 1543. The raids continued against the Christians led by Ahmed Gragn's widow Bati Del Wambara. In 1559, Emperor Gelawdewos marched on Harar with the aim to eradicate the constant religious sectarianism taking place. Gelawdewos was killed in a battle and his head was paraded around the city on a stake.

In 1647, Emir Ali ibn Daud took control the city and established an autonomous administration. Despite the continuous fighting with Oromo tribes, Harar expanded; it became well populated, an important city for trade and a centre of Muslim scholarship. It issued its own currency. After 250 years of autonomous rule, Egypt occupied Harar and killed the Emir in 1875. The Egyptian action created a strong resistance in the Muslim community of Harar. Emir Abdullah took control and led a campaign against the Egyptians, which ended in 1885.

In 1887, Harar lost its autonomy when Menelik, Prince of Shewa, who later became Emperor of Ethiopia in 1889, waged war against the army of Emir Abdullah. Menelik defeated the Emir at the Battle of Chelenko in 1887. Menelik then established a new administration, including several members of the emir's family to prevent renewed religious sectarianism, headed by Ras Mekonnen, the father of Emperor Haile Selassie.

Harar then began to disintegrate and lost its status as a trade centre in the end of nineteenth century when the railway line was built between Addis Ababa and Djibouti through Dire Dawa. From 1902, Dire Dawa became the main commercial centre of Ethiopia.

However, Harar remained as the spiritual City of Ethiopia's Muslim community, the political capital of Hararge Province until 1994 and has become a federal city-state since 1995.

Ethiopia – A Brief History

Ethiopia – A Brief History

Ethiopia is the oldest independent country in Africa and one of the oldest in the world. What are believed to be the oldest remains of a human ancestor ever found, which have been dated as being some five million years old, were discovered in the Awash Valley in Ethiopia. This beats the discovery of "Lucy", a 3.2 million year old skeleton, who was unearthed in the same area in 1974.

The Greek historian Herodotus, of the fifth century BC, describes ancient Ethiopia in his writings, while the Bible's Old Testament records the Queen of Sheba's visit to Jerusalem where "she proved Solomon with hard questions". Matters clearly went further than that because legend asserts that King Menelik - the founder of the Ethiopian Empire - was the son of the Queen and Solomon.

Remains of the Queen of Sheba’s palace can still be seen today in Axum, in the province of Tigray, northern Ethiopia. Axum is also home to many other extensive historical sites, including the home of the Ark of the Covenant, brought there from Jerusalem by Menelik.

Missionaries from Egypt and Syria reached Ethiopia in the fourth century and introduced Christianity. In the seventh century, the rise of Islam meant Ethiopia was then isolated from European Christianity. The Portuguese re-established contact with Ethiopia in the 1500s primarily to strengthen their control over the Indian Ocean and to convert Ethiopia to Roman Catholicism. A century of religious conflict followed resulting in the expulsion of all foreign missionaries in the 1630s.

This period of bitter conflict contributed to Ethiopian hostility towards foreign Christians and Europeans which persisted until the twentieth century and was a factor in Ethiopia's isolation until the middle of the nineteenth century.

From the 1700s, for roughly 100 years, there was no central power in Ethiopia. This "Era of the Princes" was characterized by the turmoil caused by local rulers competing against each other. In 1869, however, Emperor Tewodros brought many of the princes together, and was a significant unifying force. He was succeeded by Emperor Yohannes, who built upon the efforts made by Tewodros, as well as beating off invasion attempts by the Dervish and the Sudanese.

Emperor Menelik II reigned from 1889 to 1913, fending off the encroachment of European powers. Italy posed the greatest threat, having begun to colonize part of what would become its future colony of Eritrea in the mid 1880s. In 1896 Ethiopia defeated Italy at the Battle of Adwa, which remains famous today as the first victory of an African nation over a colonial power.

In 1916, the Christian nobility deposed the sitting king, Lij Iyassu because of his Muslim sympathies and made his predecessor's, (King Menelik 11 1889 - 1913), daughter, Zewditu, Empress. Her cousin, Ras Tafari Makonnen (1892-1975) was appointed regent and successor to the throne.

Zewditu died in 1930, after which the regent - adopting the name Haileselassie - became Emperor. His reign was interrupted in 1936 when Italian forces briefly invaded and occupied Ethiopia. Haileselassie then appealed to the League of Nations, but that appeal fell on deaf ears and he fled to exile in the UK, where he spent five years until the Ethiopian patriotic resistance forces with the help of the British defeated the Italians and he returned to his throne.

Haileselassie then reigned until 1974 when he was deposed and a provisional council of soldiers (the Derg, meaning committee) seized power and installed a government which was socialist in name and military in style. Fifty nine members of the Royal Family and ministers and generals from the Imperial Government were summarily executed. Haile Selassie himself was strangled in the basement of his palace in August 1975.

Major Mengistu Haile Mariam assumed power as head of state and Derg chairman after having his two predecessors killed. His years in office were marked by a totalitarian style government and the country's massive militarization financed and supplied by the Soviet Union and assisted by Cuba.

The brutality of the regime over a period of 17 years - aided by droughts and famine - hastened the Derg's collapse.

Insurrections occurred throughout Ethiopia, particularly in the northern regions of Tigray and Eritrea. In 1989, the Tigrayan People's Liberation front (TPLF) merged with the Amhara and Oromo liberation front’s (EPDM & OPDO) to form the Ethiopian Peoples' Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF). In May 1991, the EPRDF forces advanced on Addis Ababa forcing Mengistu to flee to Zimbabwe.

In 1991, the Transitional Government of Ethiopia (TGE) was set up from the EPRDF and other political parties in the country with an 87 strong Council of Representatives and a transitional constitution.

Meanwhile, in May 1991, The Eritrean People's Liberation front (EPLF), led by Isaias Afworki assumed control of Eritrea after 30 years of struggle and established a provisional government. This ran Eritrea until April 1993 when Eritreans voted for independence in a UN monitored referendum.

In Ethiopia, President Meles Zenawi and members of the TGE pledged to oversee the formation of a multi-party democracy. The election for a 548 member constituent assembly was held in June 1994. This assembly adopted the constitution of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia in December 1994. Elections for the first parliament were held in 1995 and the government was installed in August of that year.

Emperor Yohannes IV (1872-1889)

Emperor Yohannes IV (1872-1889)

Following Emperor Tewodros's death, a struggle for succession took place between Tekle Giorgis and his brother-in-law, Dejezmach Kassa of Tigray. In 1872, Dejezmach Kassa of Tigray defeated Tekle Giorgis (1868 -1872) and was crowned under the name Yohannes IV. He established Mekele as his capital when he relocated his power base from Debra Berhane to Mekele in 1881. Yohannes was a committed Christian, nationalist, diplomatic, and a great military leader.

Yohannes continued the unity of Ethiopia started by Tewodros but Prince Menelik of Shewa (who was imprisoned by Tewodros for refusing to submit to him) and the British undermined his ambitions. The British let the Egyptians control the source of Nile, Lake Tana, and they occupied Gundet, Gura and Bogos regions.

They betrayed Yohannes who was an ally of the British during the campaign against Tewodros at the Battle of Metema, in 1869. Even though Yohannes allowed Menelik back to rule Shewa after 10 years imprisonment, Menelik continued to play internal politics by seizing Wollo and putting Mohammed Ali as Governor while Yohannes fought foreign powers.

Emperor Yohannes was determined to solve the problems Ethiopia faced on all fronts. Yohannes defeated the Egyptians at Battle of Gundet and Gura in 1875/6. He contacted Menelik to try to resolve and settled diplomatically their differences and signed an agreement called the Lache agreement of 1878, recognising Yohannes as Emperor and Menelik as Prince of Shewa.

Yohannes then turned his attention to negotiating with the British and Egyptians to recognize Ethiopia as a sovereign state and independent country. Yohannes ambitions were helped when the Mahdist war broke out in Sudan in 1882. Britain had troops stationed there and Britain needed Ethiopia's assistance to rescue its troops.

 In 1884 the Treaty of Adwa was signed between Ethiopia and Britain, which fulfilled Yohannes demands such as the return of Bogos which was occupied by the Egyptians and the right to import weapons and goods. In return Britain would control the Port of Massawa. After a year, Britain tore up the treaty and handed the Port of Massawa to Italy, which became a major threat to Ethiopian sovereignty.

In 1887, Italy occupied Saati and Dogali. Yohannes fought the Italians at Dogali won the battle and then went on to liberate Saati. During that time, Yohannes received news of the Mahdist invasions of Metema and Gonder and the rise of Menelik against Yohannes. This forced him to priorities the danger facing Ethiopia and deciding to leave the Italian occupation of Saati.

Yohannes marched on Shewa to fight Menelik. Menelik heard of Yohannes's intention and sent a messenger disguised as a monk to meet Yohannes before he reached Shewa. The messenger told Yohannes about his dream not to attack Menelik and instead guided him to fight the Mahdist. Yohannes was a deeply religious man and believed the messenger, which worked well for Menelik.

Yohannes and his troops went to defend the threat posed by the Mahdist and headed to Metema, where the Mahdist troops were stationed. In March 1889, Yohannes defeated the Mahdist at the Battle of Metema but he was fatally wounded and died from his wounds.

The death of Yohannes sent a shock wave among Tigrayans. Yohannes' officials asked Ras Mengesha, the son of Yohannes IV, to claim the throne but the power struggle between the relatives of Emperor Yohannes intensified as they refused to recognise Ras Mengesha as Yohannes's heir.

Ras Mengesha's rival and nephew Debab Araya entered the fray to be heir but some Tigrayan nobles wanted Gugsa Araya to take the throne. However, Ras Alula who was a powerful warrior and known for his loyalty to Emperor Yohannes supported Ras Mengesha's claim to the throne and fought bitterly against Debab's and Gugsa's claim. Even though Ras Alula supported Ras Mengesha's claim to the throne Ras Mengesha did not try to take firm measures to curb the feud against him.

Eventually, Menelik of Shewa took the throne and became Emperor. After this event many Tigrayans never forgave Ras Mengesha for his failure to keep the throne in Tigray and allowing Menelik through the back door to be emperor. This was particularly given the fact that Menelik had played a major role in undermining Yohannes efforts to combat against foreign invaders, reunite and modernise the country.

Emperor Haile Selassie (1930-1974)

Emperor Haile Selassie (1930-1974)

Ras Tefari, the son of Ras Mekonnen (Governor of Harar), was crowned under the name Emperor Haile Selassie in November 1930. He drafted a new constitution for the country and the first parliament was assembled in November 1931, which was designed to give control of the country to the nobility based on hereditary rather than on democracy.

The constitution also limited the powers of the regional Princes. This new constitution was only challenged by Ras Hailu of Gojjam. Ras Hailu of Gojjam was jailed for life in 1932, not only for his challenge to the constitution but also for attempting to assist Iyasu esacpe from prison in Fiche, North Shewa.

Haile Selassie modernisation of the whole country was based on a divide and rule policy. He worked against Tigray in many ways. He continued to isolate Tigray and it became one of the poorest and most underdeveloped regions in Ethiopia.

In October 1935, The Italian army, with order from Mussolini, invaded northern part of Ethiopia i.e. Adigrat, Adwa and Mekele. Haile Selassie appealed to the League of Nations of which Ethiopia is a member state, but his appeal was completely ignored. The League of Nations, especially Britain and France, turned a blind eye to what was happening in Ethiopia, effectively giving Italy a green light to occupy Ethiopia.

Many Tigrayans fought against Italian invasion and few Tigrayan feudal lords sided with the Italians against Haile Selassie. Haile Selassie sent troops to Tigray in January 1936. The Ethiopian army initially claimed a victory at the Battle of Tembien, however this victory was not sustained and the Italian army overcame them. The Italian army used mustard gas after the battle of Tembien to curb the Ethiopian advances and the Ethiopian army retreated to Maychew.

The Battle of Maychew was the final resistance to the Italian occupation. Haile Selassie sent reinforcements and the Italians defeated the Ethiopian resistance at Maychew on March 31, 1936. When Haile Selassie received the bad news of the Italian victory at Maychew; he abandoned his people and country, and went into exile in Britain. Nonetheless, the Ethiopians continued to resist the Italians and waged a guerrilla war on them to undermine and destabilize their hope of colonization. The Italians responded with brutality and ruthlessness.

As a leader, he could have led the country and people against the Italian occupation. Instead he went into exile in order to save his own life and his family. Even though Haile Selassie deserted his country and people, many Ethiopians courageously exiled themselves into the mountains and forests of the country and fought the Italian army. Haile Selassie did not live up to the reputations of Emperor Tewodros II, Emperor Yohannes IV and Menelik II who gave their life and died for their county in battle (except Menelik) against foreign invaders.

In May 1936, Italy occupied the whole country and incorporated it with Eritrea and Somalia into one territory. Under the order of Mussolini, the Italian army looted the tallest Stelae (obelisk) from Aksum in 1937 and stood in Rome for 68 years. The Ethiopians and friends of Ethiopia had been campaigning vigorously for its return to Aksum, Ethiopia. Italy had finally agreed to return the 24-metre granite obelisk to Aksum in April 2005 and was reassembled in 2008 on its original place.

However, the Second World War broke out in Europe in 1939. On June 10, 1940, Italy declared war on Britain and France. The British army advanced into the Italian occupied countries in East Africa (i.e. Ethiopia and Somalia). In January 1941, the British army and the Ethiopian warriors defeated the Italian army. During the occupation, which lasted 5 years, the Italians humiliated and killed many innocent civilians.

After the British army and the Ethiopian warriors drove the Italians out of Ethiopia, Haile Selassie returned from his exile to reclaim his throne with the help of the British. In 1943, when the Tigrayans heard about the return of Haile Selassie they rebelled against him forming a resistance group under the name "Weyane" (popular uprising).

The Tigrayans were determined to unseat Haile Selassie as they held the view that he did not deserve to reclaim the throne for his desertion of his country and people while Ethiopia faced unforeseen occupation, killing and humiliation of its people by the Italian army.

Haile Selassie requested help from Britain to help to put down the Tigrayan rebellion. The British Royal Air Force flew from Yemen and bombed the "Weyane" while they were meeting in Mekele, Capital City of Tigray. The British appeared to have forgotten that the Tigrayans were their allies against Tewodros in 1869 and the Mahdist of Sudan in 1889. The market in Mekele is now remembered as grave of the "First Weyane".

In order to diffuse the mistrust and rebellion by the Tigrayans, Haile Selassie arranged for his granddaughter to marry Ras Mengesha Seyoum of Tigray and then made him Prince of Tigray. It was a good move politically. Soon after Haile Selassie went to Aksum to be officially consecrated as Emperor of Ethiopia. Traditionally, when leaders are crowned they must be consecrated in the Church of Saint Mary of Zion, Aksum, in order to claim their direct descendant from the King Solomon and Queen of Sheba otherwise their throne becomes invalid.

The great achievement of Haile Selassie was that he lobbied the US and Europeans for the reunification of Eritrea with Ethiopia, which had remained under the British rule after the Italian defeat in 1941. With the blessing of the United Nations Eritrea was re-united with Ethiopia in 1952.

Undoubtedly, Haile Selassie was skilled in diplomacy and was known for his restless efforts of campaigns against colonization in Africa. He became a voice for the whole African county independence, but he did little to develop his country's infrastructure and improve the life of ordinary Ethiopians.

The lack of infrastructure, the increase of poverty in the country, the lack of democracy, the famine in Wollo and Tigray regions in 1973, the Eritreans demand for independence, the cries for land reform by peasants and the fuel crisis led to unrest in the country. Teachers, students, peasants and workers went on strikes and held demonstrations.

After seven months of unrest, Haile Selassie was overthrown and imprisoned by the military on September 12, 1974 and later executed by the Derg (Military Committee) including his cabinet members, monarchist, and the Patriarch of the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church.

Emperor Tewodros II (1855-1869)

Emperor Tewodros II (1855-1869)

Between 1769 and 1855, Ethiopia was divided into a number of small kingdoms and ruled by regional princes and a feudal lord is known in Ethiopian history as the "Era of Princes and Wealthy Feudal Lords (Zemene Mesafint)". The central government was abolished and the regional princes took control of their own affairs until 1855.

In 1855, Lij Kassa Hailu, the son of Dejezmach Hailu Wolde Giorgis (Governor of Kawara district of Dembia, western Beghemider province), declared himself "King of Kings" and was crowned under the name of Emperor Tewodros II. Tewodros began to re-unify Ethiopia by subjugating regional Princes to his rule. He imprisoned prince Menelik of Shewa who refused to recognize Tewodros as Emperor.

 Tewodros lacked diplomatic skills and used force to pursue his goal of re-uniting the country. Because of this, Tewodros became unpopular among many regional princes and feudal lords. He successfully overthrew feudal lords and distributed land to the peasants and ordinary people. His efforts led to the abolition of the slave trade and won him the hearts and minds of many ordinary people.

Tewodros efforts were to modernize his army and to re-unite and established an independent and sovereign Ethiopia. To fulfill his ambitions, Tewodros contacted a few European countries, specifically Great Britain for support. He encountered a setback when he failed to get the support he had asked for.

The final straw for Tewodros came when the British did not respond his request of support. He became very angry and he took several British people prisoners in a final desperate attempt to get support. Queen Victoria wrote to him asking for the release of the prisoners but Tewodros refused to release the prisoners and this led to the expedition of British troops to Meqdala in 1869.

Geographically, Ethiopia was and still is a very difficult country to travel in without inside co-operation so the British contacted Dejezmach Kassa of Tigray who was unhappy with the way he had been treated by Tewodros. Kassa of Tigray made a deal with the British. They promised him that he would get weaponry in exchange for his support against Tewodros.

 In 1869, The British troops and Kassa of Tigray marched on Meqdala and defeated Tewodros army. Tewodros shot and killed himself rather than surrender to the British army. After Tewodros death, the British army looted the country's precious manuscripts and religious artifacts from Megdala.

Today these priceless treasures of Ethiopia can be seen in many museums in the UK including the British Museum. The British army also took Tewodros's son, Alemayohu, to Britain where he grew up under the protection of Queen Victoria until he died at the age of 18. His memorial is now in the chapel at Windsor Castle.

Tewodros is remembered by Ethiopians as the founder and modernizer of Ethiopia's Re-unification. He is now one of the most revered historical figures

Emperor Menelik II (1889-1913)

Emperor Menelik II (1889-1913)

Subsequent to Emperor Yohannes's death in March 1889, Prince Menelik of Shewa Menelik was crowned Emperor of Ethiopia and he established Entoto as his Capital, on the hill of Addis Ababa. Menelik expanded his rule to the south and east of the country but he faced a threat from the Italians who still occupied Massawa, Saati and the Red Sea Coast. Menelik was helpless to defend the country from the Italian occupation and he attempted to negotiate with Italians.

 The Treaty of Wechale was signed effectively Menelik has granted Eritrea to Italy in exchange recognition of Ethiopian sovereignty. What Menelik did not know was the Italians inserted a clause in the Italian version of the Treat of Wechale, restricting Ethiopia from foreign contact stating all contacts must be made through Italy. Menelik's nightmare did not end there, the Italians attempted to court the Tigrayans Princes into the alliance with Eritrea and the Italians invaded north part of Tigray leading to the Battle of Adwa.

The Ethiopian army equipped with spears, machetes and a few rifles marched on Adwa to defend their country from the foreign invader Italy. In March 1896, the Ethiopians defeated the Italian army, which was one of the proudest moments in the Ethiopian history.

The Italians defeat at the Battle of Adwa was not enough for the Ethiopian army who wanted to drive the Italians out of Eritrea for good. Nevertheless, Menelik returned to Addis Ababa leaving Eritrea under Italian occupation. Menelik is believed to have said, "leave the Italians to rule Eritrea beyond Merab River". This dismayed many Ethiopians who prepared to die and defend their country's sovereignty against Italian occupation.

After his return to Addis Ababa, Menelik negotiated with Italy to define a common border between Ethiopia and Eritrea. He signed an agreement recognising Eritrea as a sovereign state of Italy, beyond the Merab River as main border between Ethiopia and Eritrea. Ethiopia remained an independent and sovereign state, though Menelik lost Eritrea to Italy, during the "Scramble of Africa".

Menelik then moved his Capital from Entoto to Addis Ababa, which is now the Capital of Ethiopia. Menelik began to build schools and hospital in Addis Ababa and introduced electricity and telephone. He continued his modernization programme by building a railway, with the help of the French, linking Addis Ababa to Djibouti through Dera Awa, main trade centre of Harar.

In 1913, Menelik died from ill health. Iyasu was the successor and designated heir of Menelik II.

The Derg (1974-1991)

The Derg (1974-1991)

Immediately after Emperor Haile Selassie was overthrown; in September 1974, a Military Committee (known as the Derg) was established from several divisions of the Ethiopian Armed forces.

 General Aman Amdon was elected as spokesperson for the Derg and implemented policies for the country, which included land distribution to peasants, nationalizing industries and services under public ownership and led Ethiopia into the Socialism. The Derg was credited for these policies which at first gained mass support across the country.

Initially the Derg was popular following the coup against Haile Selassie who came to power under the slogan of "Ethiopia First", "Land to the peasants" and "Democracy and Equality to all". The Derg became deeply unpopular due to ill sought out policies and mass executions, which sent a shock wave across the country.

 The Eritrean conflict, Somalis invasion of Ogaden and other issues surfaced. In particular, General Aman disagreed with the policy on how to deal with the Eritrean crisis, as he wanted to solve the Eritrean conflict peacefully. He was put under house arrest by the Derg and executed two months later along with other high ranking officers and civil servants. General Tefari Abante was then elected by the Derg to lead the country.

However, the unpopularity of the Derg deepened. Many Ethiopians joined opposition groups such as Tigray Peoples' Liberation Front (TPLF), Ethiopian Peoples' Revolutionary Party (EPRP), Eritrean Peoples' Liberation Front (EPLF), Ethiopian Democratic Union (EDU, lead by Prince Mengesha of Tigray, son-in-law of Haile Selassie) and Oromo Liberation Front (OLF). These groups made up of many ordinary Ethiopians became the victims of the Derg.

An internal struggle for power took place within the Derg; then the unknown figure, Mengistu Hailemariam, eventually emerged as an undisputed and ruthless leader. He executed General Tefari and other high ranking officers and became the leader of the Derg. Mengistu adopted a Stalinist policy and declared the "Red Terror" (mass execution) in 1977.

Ethiopia entered a new phase of chaos and a state of civil war in Eritrea and Tigray. The TPLF, EPRP, EPLF, EDU and OLF opposed and engaged in armed struggle to overthrow the Derg. Mengistu gave a free hand to his political cadres to carry out his policy. Thousands of students, teachers, workers and ordinary Ethiopians who were suspected of supporting opposition groups were imprisoned without charge, tortured and executed.

This happened randomly across the country and bodies were left for up to three days on the streets, in front of public building, schools, universities in order to scare others into not to supporting opposition groups. Even the parents and relatives of victims were not allowed to mourn or to collect the body of the victims and bury their loved ones. The government officials were only allowed to bury all the victims in unknown mass graves during the night.

In 1977, Somalia invaded Ethiopia and occupied Ogaden and its forces advanced to Harar. Western governments' politics played into and contributed towards the Somalia and Ethiopia conflict. The USA had abandoned Ethiopia when it adopted Marxist and Leninist ideology and switched its support to Somalia.

Mengistu was desperate at the time; the Soviet Union once a partner of the Somalis changed their support from Somalia to Ethiopia. Mengistu received military and logistic support from the Soviet Union and Cuba. Thousands of Cuban and Russian personnel and armed forces came to the aid of the Mengistu regime and were involved in military planning and fighting against Somalia. Later they were involved in planning and fighting against the TPLF and EPLF in the north of the country.

War broke out between the EPRP and TPLE in Eastern Tigray. The TPLE drove the EPRP out of Tigray. The TPLF also drove the EDU out of the Western part of Tigray. The TPLF popularity grew and they became a major threat to the Mengistu regime. Mengistu retaliated by putting many Tigrayans in prison without charge. Many were tortured and executed in a cold blood.

The famine in 1984/5 was not helped by the regime's politics, which contributed towards it and it was the worst in living memory. The Mengistu government imposed a restriction of movement on goods and aid to the famine affected regions. Hundreds of thousands of people died of starvation due to the Mengistu regime refused to allow aid to be transported to the regions affected by the famine, which were controlled by the rebels.

Instead, the Mengistu regime devised and implemented a policy of resettlement in the famine affected regions as a cover, to prevent people from supporting the rebels' causes. The government thought this might weaken the rebels and stop them getting the support of the people who live in the areas controlled by the rebels.

The Mengistu regime carried out the resettlement programme by taking people by force from markets and their home and loading them to buses and Lorries and transporting them to swampy areas ridden with malaria in the south and west of the country. As a result of the resettlement programme many people died on their journey and on arrival because of the inadequate help from the government. Many families were separated from their loved ones and many people returned back home illegally.

The resettlement programme was a disaster; nobody volunteered to go but people were forced to resettle in unknown and inhospitable areas. The TPLF used the plight of the people and the resettlement policy to help its cause, and the TPLF popularity grew immensely. Many people chose to join the TPLF cause rather than being forced to resettle in an area they were not familiar with.

In September 1987, The Mengistu regime proclaimed Ethiopia as the Ethiopian Peoples' Democratic Republic and the Derg became the Ethiopian Workers party (EWP). In the same year the Amhara opposition group the Ethiopian Revolutionary Democratic Movement (EPRDM) was formed and they became a key ally of the TPLF.

Large parts of Tigray, Wollo and Gonder fell to the TPLF and EPRDM. It then became clear that the Ethiopian army was not capable of defeating the rebels and Russian and Cuban help was needed in military planning and to fight against the rebels.

The TPLF and EPRDM were victorious and took control of the whole Tigray, Wollo, and Gonder Regions and they then advanced on Addis Ababa. Meanwhile the EPLF in Eritrea took control of the major cities and began to advance to Asmara and Assab. The government army was in completely disarrayed and defeated on every battlefront.

In 1991, the TPLF and EPRDM overthrew the Mengistu regime. Mengistu and other high ranking officials fled the country and many other officials were imprisoned and still on trial accused of mass murder. The TPLF and EPRDM took control of the government under the name of Ethiopian Peoples' Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF), led by Meles Zenawi, the TPLF leader.

In April 1993, a referendum took place in Eritrea and the Eritreans voted overwhelmingly for independence. Eritrea became officially independent and separated from Ethiopia, even though many Ethiopians did not support the referendum in Eritrea.

In 1995, Ethiopia became a federation divided into 10 administrative regions based on ethnic lines. Some opposition groups did not accept the EPRDF government and still continue to fight against Meles Zenawi government.